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English Language Teaching Methodology
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Presentation on theme: «English Language Teaching Methodology»— Presentation transcript:
1 English Language Teaching Methodology
Tatiana Shvets Specialized school of I-III levels №13
4 The Grammar Translation Method
(1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. (2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. (3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given. (4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5 (5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
(6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in in grammatical analysis. (7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. (8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
6 Typical Techniques (1) Translation of a Literary Passage
(Translating target language to native language) (2) Reading Comprehension Questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience) (3) Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words).
7 (4) Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language) (5) Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples) (6) Fill-in-the-blanks (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type). (7) Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms) (8) Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words) (9) Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language)
8 The Direct Method (1) Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language. (2) Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. (3) Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
9 (4) Grammar is taught inductively.
(5) New teaching points are taught through modeling and practice. (6) Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas. (7) Both speech and listening comprehension are taught. (8) Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
10 Typical Techniques 1) Reading Aloud
(Reading sections of passages, plays or dialogues out loud) (2) Question and Answer Exercise (Asking questions in the target language and having students answer in full sentences) (3) Student Self-Correction (Teacher facilitates opportunities for students to self correct using follow-up questions, tone, etc)
11 4) Conversation Practice
(Teacher asks students and students ask students questions using the target language) (5) Fill-in-the-blank Exercise (Items use target language only and inductive rather than explicit grammar rules) (6) Dictation (Teacher reads passage aloud various amount of times at various tempos, students writing down what they hear) (7) Paragraph Writing (Students write paragraphs in their own words using the target language and various models)
14 Typical Techniques 1)Dialog Memorization (Students memorize an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role-playing) (2) Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill) (Teacher breaks a line into several parts, students repeat each part starting at the end of the sentence and «expanding» backwards through the sentence, adding each part in sequence) (3) Repitition Drill (Students repeat teacher’s model as quickly and accurately as possible) (4) Chain Drill (Students ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain around the classroom ) (5) Single Slot Substitution Drill (Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a «cue» that students, when repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence in the correct place)
15 (6) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill
(Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple cues to be substituted into the line) (7) Transformation Drill (Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for example a question to be turned into a statement, an active sentence to be turned into a negative statement, etc) (8) Question-and-answer Drill (Students should answer or ask questions very quickly) (9) Use of Minimal Pairs (Using contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound identical except for a single sound that typically poses difficulty for the learners — students are to pronounce and differentiate the two words) (10) Complete the Dialogue (Selected words are erased from a line in the dialog — students must find and insert) (11) Grammar Games (Various games designed to practice a grammar point in context, using lots of repetition)
16 Community Language Learning
1) Students are to be considered as «learner-clients» and the teacher as a «teacher-councelor». (2) A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential to the learning process. (3) Students are permitted to use their native language, and are provided with translations from the teacher which they then attempt to apply.
17 4) Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.
(5) «Chunks» of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listened to — they are also transcribed with native language equivalents to become texts the students work with. (6) Students apply the target language independently and without translation when they feel inclined/ confident enough to do so. (7) Students are encouraged to express not only how they feel about the language, but how they feel about the learning process, to which the teacher expresses empathy and understanding. (8) A variety of activities can be included (for example, focusing on a particular grammar or pronunciation point, or creating new sentences based on the recordings/transcripts).
18 Typical Techniques (1) Tape Recording Student Conversation
(Students choose what they want to say, and their target language production is recorded for later listening/dissemination) (2) Transcription (Teacher produces a transcription of the tape-recorded conversation with translations in the mother language — this is then used for follow up activities or analysis)
19 3) Reflection on Experience
(Teacher takes time during or after various activities to allow students to express how they feel about the language and the learning experience, and the teacher indicates empathy/understanding) (4) Reflective Listening (Students listen to their own voices on the tape in a relaxed and reflective environment) (5) Human Computer (Teacher is a «human computer» for the students to control — the teacher stating anything in the target language the student wants to practice, giving them the opportunity to self correct) (6) Small Group Tasks (Students work in small groups to create new sentences using the transcript, afterwards sharing them with the rest of the class)
21 Typical Techniques (1) Sound-Color Chart
(The teacher refers students to a color-coded wall chart depicting individual sounds in the target language — students use this to point out and build words with correct pronunciation) (2) Teacher’s Silence (Teacher is generally silent, only giving help when it is absolutely necessary) (3) Peer Correction (Students encouraged to help each other in a cooperative and not competitive spirit)
22 (5) Self-correction Gestures
4) Rods (Rods are used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language. They can symbolize whatever words are being taught and be manipulated directly or abstractly to create sentences) (5) Self-correction Gestures (Teacher uses hands to indicate that something is incorrect or needs changing — eg. using fingers as words then touching the finger/word that is in need of correction) (6) Word Chart (Words are depicted on charts, the sounds in each word corresponding in color to the Sound-Color Chart described above — students use this to build sentences) (7) Fidel Chart (A chart that is color-coded according to the sound-color chart but includes the various English spellings so that they can be directly related to actual sounds) (8) Structured Feedback (Students are invited to make observations about the day’s lesson amd what they have learned)
23 Suggestopedia cushioned seating and dim lighting.
(1) Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible, featuring soft cushioned seating and dim lighting. (2) «Peripheral» learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters and decorations featuring the target language and various grammatical information. (3) The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom. (4) Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners’ potential to learn are «desuggested».
24 (5) Students are encouraged to be child-like, take «mental trips with the teacher» and assume new
roles and names in the target language in order to become more «suggestible». (6) Baroque music is played softly in the background to increase mental relaxation and potential to take in and retain new material during the lesson. (7) Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying translation into the students’ native language. (8) Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure. Grammar and vocabulary are presented and given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on. (9) Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying — once before they go to sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up. (10) Music, drama and «the Arts» are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.
25 Typical Techniques (1) Classroom Set-up (Emphasis is placed on creating a physical environment that does not «feel» like a normal classroom, and makes the students feel as relaxed and comfortable as possible) (2) Peripheral Learning (Students can absorb information «effortlessly» when it is perceived as part of the environment, rather than the material «to be attended to») (3) Positive Suggestion (Teachers appeal to students’ consciousness and subconscious in order to better orchestrate the «suggestive» factors involved in the learning situation) (4) Visualization (Students are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events, to help them relax, facilitate positive suggestion and encourage creativity from the students)
26 5) Choose a New Identity (Students select a target language name and/or occupation that places them «inside» the language language they are learning) (6) Role-play (Students pretend temporarily that they are somone else and perform a role using the target language) (7) First Concert (Teacher does a slow, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in intonation with classical music) (8) Second Concert (Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed according to the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque music — this typically ends the class for the day) (9) Primary Activation (Students «playfully» reread the target language out loud, as individuals or in groups) (10) Secondary Activation (Students engage in various activities designed to help the students learn the material and use it more spontaneously — activities include singing, dancing, dramatizations and games — «communicative intent» and not «form» being the focus)
31 The Communicative Language Teaching Approach
32 Basic Features of CLT 1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. (2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. (3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on the language but also on the learning process itself. (4) An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. (5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
33 The Communicative Language Teaching in Comparison with the Audiolingual Method
34 (1) CLT: Meaning is paramount.
ALM: Attends to structure and form more than meaning. (2) CLT: Dialogs, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized. ALM: Demands more memorization of structure-based dialogs.
35 ALM: Language items are not necessarily contextualized.
(3) CLT: Contextualization is a basic premise. ALM: Language items are not necessarily contextualized. (4) CLT: Language learning is learning to communicate. ALM: Language Learning is learning structures, sounds or words.
36 (5) CLT: Effective communication is sought.
ALM: Mastery or «overlearning» is sought. (6) CLT: Drilling may occur, but peripherially. ALM: Drilling is a central technique.
37 (7) CLT: Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
ALM: Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought. (8) CLT: Any device which helps the learners is accepted — varying according to their age, interest, etc. ALM: Grammatical explanation is avoided.
38 (9) CLT: Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.
ALM: Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exrecises. (10) CLT: Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. ALM: The use of the students’ native language is forbidden.
39 (11) CLT: Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it.
ALM: Translation is forbidden at early levels. (12) CLT: Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired. ALM: Reading and writing are deferred until speech is mastered.
40 13) CLT: The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to
communicate. ALM: The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system. (14) CLT: Communicative competence is the desired goal. ALM: Linguistic competence is the desired goal.
41 ALM: Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.
(15) CLT: Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods. ALM: Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized. (16) CLT: Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function, or meaning which maintains interest. ALM: The sequence of units is determined solely on principles of linguistic complexity.
42 (17) CLT: Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
ALM: The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory. (18) CLT: Language is created by the individual often through trial and error. ALM: «Language is habit» so error must be prevented at all costs.
43 (19) CLT: Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the
abstract but in context. ALM: Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal. (20) CLT: Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings. ALM: Students are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.
44 (21) CLT: The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.
ALM: The teacher is expected to specify the language that students are to use. (22) CLT: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language. ALM: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language.
Be a risk-taker and see errors as an essential, positive part of the learning process;» > 47 -> Be a risk-taker and see errors as an essential, positive part of the learning process;
-> See peers (ie, your fellow teachers) as sources of learning, who may or may not be «right»; -> See learning as a cooperative and collaberative exercise, not a competitive one; -> Try to take responsibility for your own learning, set your own goals and develop strategies to achieve them.
Источник
Differences Between Audio Lingual and Communicative Language Teaching Methods
The audio lingual method, or the Army method, or also the New key, is the mode of language instruction based on behaviourist ideology, which professes that certain traits of living things could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. Read More about Philology The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. There is no explicit grammar instruction everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construction until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output.
The communicative language teaching is am approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes communication or interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. The communicative language teaching was the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with earlier Grammar Translation and Audio Lingual Methods, where students were not learning enough realistic, socially necessary language.Read More about Philology Therefore they became interested in the development of communicative style teaching in the 1970s, focusing on authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another. The goal of communicative language teaching is of creating communicative competence in the learners. It makes use of real life situations.
The CLT and ALM differ from various aspects. Basic differences as presented by Finocchiaro and Brumfit(1983) are given below:
| Parameters | Communicative Language Teaching | Audio Lingual Methods |
| Meaning and structure |
Meaning is paramount. | Attends to structure and form more than meaning. |
| Context |
Contextualization is a basic premise. Read More about Teaching English |
Language items are not necessarily contextualized. |
| Learning objectives |
Language learning is learning to communicate. | Language Learning is learning structures, sounds or words. |
| Goal |
Effective communication is sought. | Mastery or «overlearning» is sought. |
| Drilling |
Drilling may occur, but peripherally. | Drilling is a central technique. |
| Pronunciation |
Comprehensible pronunciation is sought. | Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought. |
| Grammatical explanation |
Any device which helps the learners is accepted — varying according to their age, interest, etc. | Grammatical explanation is avoided. |
| STAGE OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES |
Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.
Read More about Teaching English
|
Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises. |
| Native language |
Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. | The use of the learners’ native language is forbidden. |
| Translation |
Translation may be used where learners need or benefit from it. | Translation is forbidden at early levels. |
| Reading and writing |
Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired. | Reading and writing are deferred until speech is mastered. |
| Teaching Patterns |
The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate. | The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system. |
| Competence |
Communicative competence is the desired goal. |
Linguistic competence is the desired goal. |
| Language variation |
Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods. |
Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized. |
| Sequencing |
Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function, or meaning which maintains interest. |
The sequence of units is determined solely on principles of linguistic complexity.Read More about Teaching English |
| Error |
Language is created by the individual often through trial and error. | «Language is habit» so error must be prevented at all costs. |
| Accuracy |
Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context. | Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal. |
| Intrinsic motivation |
Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language. |
Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language. Read More about Teaching English |
| Teacher’s function |
Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language. |
The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflict with the theory. |
| Interaction |
Learners are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings. | Learners are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials. |
| Learner Language |
The teacher cannot know exactly what language the learners will use.Read More about Teaching English |
The teacher is expected to specify the language that learners are to use. |
| Teachers’ responsibility |
The teachers assume a responsibility for determining and responding to learner’s language need. | The teachers have no responsibility to determine learner’s language need. |
Communicative language teaching often uses a functional-notional syllabus. A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. Read More about Teaching English On the other hand, Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structure based approach to language teaching. The starting point is a linguistic syllabus which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their order of presentation.Read More about Philology
Instructional materials:In communicative language teaching, instructional materials have the primary role of promoting communicative language use. In audio-lingual method, instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner.
Ardhendu De
REF: Wiki, Encarta, Learning Tool: Harris Goldsmith, IGNOU Study Materials , Lectures of my Teacher Prof. Gopal Sutradhar
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The Idea
The communicative language teaching approach is based on the idea that learning a language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, they naturally learn the language.
The History
It could be said that the communicative language approach is the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction.
The Basics
They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language, and did not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions. In brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied.
Communicative language teaching
makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets
up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life.
Unlike the audio-lingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses.
The Basic Principles
- Learners are often more motivated with this approach as they are interested in what is being communicated, the topic, or the theme of the lesson.
- Learners are encouraged to speak and communicate from day one, rather than just barking out repetitive phrases.
- Learners practice the target language a number of times, slowly building on accuracy.
- Language is created by the individual, often through trial and error.
- Learners interact with each other in pairs or groups, to encourage a flow of language and maximize the percentage of talking time.
Its Application to a Lesson
During Presentation Stage
- The teacher gives a short presentation of a grammar or vocabulary point.
- The teacher then gives students the opportunity to practice the point in a controlled exercise (Repetition and drills).
- Students carry out the controlled exercise while the teacher monitors and intervenes where appropriate.
During Practice Stage
- Students are asked to take part in activities designed to get them to produce the vocabulary and grammar they have been taught.
- The teacher monitors and notes errors and interesting points.
- The teacher intervenes only when asked or when absolutely necessary.
During Assessment Stage
- The teacher gives the feedback in a non-threatening way about the errors he/she noted during the previous stage.
- Students also have the opportunity to clear up puzzling points.
Final Word
You should
understand
that
the teacher’s role
in CLT is to get their students to
communicate using real language by providing them with instruction, practice, and above all opportunities to produce English in activities that encourage acquisition
and fluency.
According to CLT, language learning should be fun, rewarding, and enabling students to communicate successfully.
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- Teach grammar using the PPP model.
- Follow some suggestions for teaching grammar successfully.
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Differences Between Audio Lingual and Communicative language teaching Methods
The audio lingual method, or the Army method, or also the New key, is the mode of language instruction based on behaviourist ideology, which professes that certain traits of living things could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. There is no explicit grammar instruction everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construction untill they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output.
The communicative language teaching is am approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes communication or interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. The clt was the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with earlier Grammer Translation and Audio Lingual Methods, where students were nott learning enough realistic, socially necessary language. Therefore they became interested in the development of communicative style teaching in the 1970s, focussing on authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another. The goal of clt is of creating communicative competence in the learners. It makes use of real life situations.
The CLT and ALM differ from various aspects. Basic differences as presented by Finocchiaro and Brumfit(1983) are given below:
Meaning and structure
CLT: Meaning is paramount.
ALM: Attends to structure and form more than meaning.
Ccontext
CLT: Contextualization is a basic premise.
ALM: Language items are not necessarily contextualized.
Learning objectives
CLT: Language learning is learning to communicate.
ALM: Language Learning is learning structures, sounds or words.
Goal
CLT: Effective communication is sought.
ALM: Mastery or «overlearning» is sought.
Drilling
CLT: Drilling may occur, but peripherially.
ALM: Drilling is a central technique.
Pronunciation
CLT: Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
ALM: Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought.
Grammatical explanation
CLT: Any device which helps the learners is accepted — varying according to their age, interest, etc.
ALM: Grammatical explanation is avoided.
STAGE OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES
CLT: Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.
ALM: Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises.
Native language
CLT: Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible.
ALM: The use of the learners’ native language is forbidden.
Translation
CLT: Translation may be used where learners need or benefit from it.
ALM: Translation is forbidden at early levels.
Reading and writing
CLT: Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.
ALM: Reading and writing are deferred until speech is mastered.
Teaching Patterns
CLT: The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate.
ALM: The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system.
Competence
CLT: Communicative competence is the desired goal.
ALM: Linguistic competence is the desired goal.
Language variation
CLT: Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods.
ALM: Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.
Sequencing
CLT: Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function, or meaning which maintains interest.
ALM: The sequence of units is determined solely on principles of linguistic complexity.
Error
CLT: Language is created by the individual often through trial and error.
ALM: «Language is habit» so error must be prevented at all costs.
Accuracy
CLT: Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context.
ALM: Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal.
Intrinsic motivation
CLT: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.
ALM: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language.
Teacher’s function
CLT: Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
ALM: The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflict with the theory.
Interaction
CLT: Learners are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings.
ALM: Learners are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.
Learner Laguage
CLT: The teacher cannot know exactly what language the learners will use.
ALM: The teacher is expected to specify the language that learners are to use.
Teachers’ responsibility
CLT: The teachers assume a responsibility for determining and responding to learner’s language need.
ALM: The teachers have no responsibility to determine learner’s language need.
Communicative language teaching often uses a functional-notional syllabus. A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. On the other hand, Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structure based approach to language teaching. The starting point is a linguistic syllabus which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their order of presentation.
Instructional materials:
In communicative language teaching, instructional materials have the primary role of promoting communicative language use. In audio-lingual method, instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner.
Слайды презентации
Слайд 1
What is a communicative method
of teaching foreign languages?
Does
everyone understand what
CLT imply?
What are the key
principles of
CLT?
Слайд 2
There is nothing new in the basic idea
that
communicative ability is the goal
of FLT. This is
the assumption that
underlines such widely used
approaches as Situational language
teaching or the Audio-lingual method.Popular misconception:
The main principle of CLT – forming
communicative ability of students as a main goal
of teaching
Слайд 4
The term usage was coined for language which
conformed
to the codified paradigms of the language. Usage
is
independent of context, and allows us to say that a sentence
is a possible English sentence. It gives us no information
about its actual occurance, or, if it does occur, about the
context in which it is appropriate.
In contrast, use , describes the functional and contextual
appropriacy of an utterance. The contextual meaning of an
utterance may differ radically from its surface meaning. I
don’t know what you mean , said in a particular way and in
particular context may be a statement of bafflement , with
request for clarification. Equally, the same sentence said in
a different way and in a different context may be an
expression of disbelief or even outrage. In this case, the
purpose that the speaker intends is not reflected in the
surface structure.
Слайд 5
The origins of Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) are to
be
found in the changes in the British
language
teaching tradition dating
from the late 1960s. Until then,
Situational Language represented the
major British approach to teaching
English as a foreign language.
British applied linguists emphasized
another fundamental dimension of
language that was inadequately
addressed in current approaches to
language teaching at that time – the
functional and communicative potential
of language. They saw the need to focus
in language teaching on communicative
proficiency rather than on mere mastery
of structures Naom Chomsky
Слайд 6
Another impetus for different approaches to
foreign language teaching
came from
changing educational realities in Europe.
The need
to articulate and develop
alternative methods of language teaching
was considered a high priority.
Слайд 7
A British linguist, D. A. Wilkins (1972) proposed a
functional or communicative definition of language
that could serve
as a basis for developing
communicative syllabuses for language teaching.
Wilkins’s contribution was an analysis of the
communicative meanings that a language learner
needs to understand and express. Rather than
describe the core of language through traditional
concepts of grammar and vocabulary, Wilkins
attempted to demonstrate the systems of meanings
that lay behind the communicative uses of language .
Слайд 8
The work of the Council of Europe; the writings
of
Wilkins, Widdowson, Candlin, Christopher Brumfit,
Keith Johnson, and
other British applied linguists on
the theoretical basis for a communicative or
functional approach to language teaching;
the rapid application of these ideas by textbook
writers; and the equally rapid acceptance of these
new principles by British language teaching
specialists, curriculum development centers, and
even governments gave prominence nationally and
internationally to the Communicative Approach, or
simply Communicative Language Teaching.
Слайд 9
Howatt distinguishes between a «strong» and a «weak»
version
of Communicative Language Teaching:
The weak version which has become
more or less standard
practice in the last ten years, stresses the importance of
providing learners with opportunities to use their English
for communicative purposes and, characteristically,
attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program
of language teaching….
The strong version of communicative teaching, on the
other hand, advances the claim that language is acquired
through communication, so that it is not merely a question
of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the
language, but of stimulating the development of the
language system itself. If the former could be described as
‘learning to use’ English , the latter entails ‘using English
to learn it.’
Слайд 10
Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive
features
of the Audiolingual Method and the Communicative
Approach, according
to their interpretation:
Audio-lingual Method Communicative Language
Teaching
Attends to structure and form
more than meaning.
Demands memorization of
structure-based dialogs.
Language items are not
necessarily contextualized.
Language learning is learning
structures, sounds, or words. Meaning is paramount.
Dialogs, if used, center around
communicative functions and
are not normally memorized.
Contextualization is a basic
premise .
Language learning is learning
to communicate.
Слайд 11
Mastery, or «over-learning» is
sought.
Communicative activities only
come
after a long process of
rigid drills and exercises
Effective communication is
sought.
Attempts to communicate may
be encouraged from the very
beginning.
Drilling is a central technique. Drilling may occur, but
peripherally.
Native-speaker-like
pronunciation is sought. Comprehensible pronunciation
is sought.
Grammatical explanation is
avoided. Any device which helps the
learners is accepted — varying
according to
their age, interest, etc.
Слайд 12
The use of the student’s native
language is forbidden.
Translation is forbidden at
early levels Judicious use
of native
language is
accepted where feasible.
Translation may be used
where students need or benefit
from it.
Linguistic competence is the
desired goal.
The sequence of units is
determined solely by principles
of linguistic complexity. Communicative competence is
the desired goal (i.e. the ability
to use the linguistic system
effectively and appropriately).
Sequencing is determined by
any consideration of content,
function, or meaning which
maintains interest.
Слайд 13
» Language is habit» so
errors must be prevented
at
all costs. Accuracy, in terms
of formal
correctness, is a
primary goal. Language is created by the
individual often through trial
and error.
Fluency and acceptable
language is the primary
goal: accuracy is judged not
in the abstract but in
context.
The teacher is expected to
specify the language that
students are to use. The teacher cannot know
exactly what language the
students will use.
Слайд 14
There are two fundamental implications:
1. A communicative approach makes
us consider language
not only in terms of its
structures, but also in terms of
communicative functions that it performs. We begin to look
not only at language forms, but also at what people do with
these forms when they want to communicate with each
other
2. CA makes us aware that it is not enough to teach
learners how to manipulate the structures of the foreign
language. They must also develop strategies for relating
these structures to their communicative functions in real
situations and real time
Слайд 15
Learning and acquisition
This distinction, in its precise form, is
based
entirely on the work of Stephen Krashen.
Both are used more loosely to desribe “how
we learn languages”.
Acquisition for Krashen consists of the
spontaneous process of rule internalisation
that results from natural language use, while
learning consists of the development of
conscious L2 knowledge through formal
study. For Krashen, learning is always
conscious, the result of study, and can be
planned. In contrast, acquisition is
unplanned and unconscious. His most
conroversial claim is that conscious learning
does not aid unconscious acquisition. For
him, the two are totally separate. Stephen Krashen
Слайд 16
Competence and performance
Chomsky: linguistic competence is the
knowledge
of language structure, which is an abstract
idealisation,
the perfect knowledge of the ideal
speaker-listener in a homogeneous speech
community.
Widdowson: knowing of a language is not only a matter of
knowing how to form correct sentences, but how to use these
sentences in acts of communication.
Empasis shifted to performance, and to language as it is actually
used. This change of emphasis made ideas such as functions and
the communicative value of language in real use theoretically
respectable.
Слайд 17
Accuracy and fluency
The explicit purpose of accuracy exercises is
that students
should get the language “right”, usually by
forming
correct sentences. There was a time when for all practical
purposes all exercises were of this type. Teaching was
conducted on the basis of behaviorist theory: accuracy
was percieved not only as the ultimate goal, but as the
route to the goal.
Fluency exercises arose as people understood that
accuracy alone was not enough. It became clear that, even
if knowledge of what was correct was necessary, it was
not sufficient. In addition, students needed to be able to
use the language, particularly spoken language, and
fluency practice was the intended preparation for this.
Слайд 18
Within the supposed paradigm of
Present-Practise-Produce the Practise
phase
was seen as accuracy-based, while
the Produce phase offered
students wider
situations in which to operate, with a
greater opportunity to be creative but
also more opportunity to get things
wrong
Слайд 19
Teaching and Learning
Nowadays the emphasis has shifted to skills,
learner-
centered activities, and a more developmental, process-
oriented view of
language and learning.
It is unduly optimistic to assume that what is taught,
the students learn. Our lives would be simpler if
teaching and learning were isomorphic, but sadly this
is not the case.
Слайд 20
Research literature tells us a great deal about
teaching
than it does about learning. It is relatively
easy
to observe teachers and record their activities;
it is much more difficult to make any observations
at all about learning or, more precisely,
acquisition.
Слайд 21
Input and intake
Input is language presented to students through
reading
and listening. Traditionally the amount of input was
severely restricted and rigorously sequenced.
Classroom procedures such as grammar drills,
intensive pronunciation practice, intensive reading
were based on the assumption that students would
master each new language item as they met it.
It is possible to sequence the language
Learning is a step-by-step process and too much input would confuse
Слайд 22
Not all input will result in intake – the
language which the student benefits
from and is able
to integrate into his
own repertoire.
Слайд 23
A consistent methodology is more than
just a collection
of activities or
techniques
But too often communicative
language
teaching in practice concentrates on a
specific technique (e.g. dividing the
students into groups or pairs) or
procedures (e.g. role-play); too rarely has
there been much evidence of an overall
method.
Слайд 24
Communication involves much more
than simply a knowledge of
forms; it
depends crucially on the ability to use
forms in
appropriate ways.
Слайд 25
One of the most characteristic features of CLT is
that it pays
systematic attention to functional as well
as structural aspects
of the language, combining these into a more fully
communicative view.
The structural view of the language concentrates on the
grammatical system, describing ways in which linguistic
items can be combined.
Why don’t you close the door?
From a functional viewpoint it is ambiguous. In
some circumstances it can be a question, in others –
a command or a plea, a suggestion, complaint.
Слайд 26
The most efficient communicator in a FL is not
always
the person who is best at manipulating its
structures. It
is often the person who is most skilled at processing the
complete situation involving himself and his hearer,
taking account of what knowledge is already shared
between them and selecting items which will
communicate his message effectively.
Foreign language learners need opportunities to
develop those skills
They need to learn to use their available resources
for communicating meanings as efficiently and
economically as possible.
Слайд 27
Why am I learning this?
What am I learning to
do?
Learning the question form of the 3rd person
singular of
the present tense because it is on page 23 of the textbook is
one thing; learning it so that you can ask questions at a
railway station (‘Does this train go to Birmingham?’ ‘Does
it stop at Reading?’ etc) is quite another.
Know what you are doingEvery lesson should end with the learner being able to say clearly
that he can do something which he could not do at the beginning
— and that the ‘something’ is communicatively useful.
Слайд 28
The starting point (and end point) of every lesson
should be an
operation of some kind which the
student might actually want to
perform in the foreign language.
in reading, this might be understanding a set of instructions;
in writing it might be a letter reserving accommodation at a hotel;
in listening it might be a weather forecast on the radio;
in speaking it might be asking for directions in a strange city.
Very prosaic activities such as pattern drilling can be given a
communicative dimension if teachers and students ask themselves
why they are doing them and are able to relate them to the
performance of some communicative task.
Слайд 29
Information gap
In real life, communication takes place between two
(or more)
people, one of whom knows something that
is unknown to the
other(s). The purpose of the communication is to bridge this
information gap.
In classroom terms, an information gap exercise means that
one student must be in a position to tell another something that
the second student does not already know.
Слайд 30
This concept of information gap seems to be
one
of the most fundamental in the whole area
of
communicative teaching. Any exercise or
procedure which claims to engage the students
in communication should be considered in the
light of it, and one of the main jobs for the
teacher can be seen as setting up situations
where information gaps exist and motivating
the students to bridge them in appropriate
ways.
Слайд 31
Choice
Another crucial characteristic of communication is
that the participants
have choice, both in terms of
what they will
say and, more particularly, how they
will say it. From the point of view of the speaker this
means that he must choose not only what ideas he
wants to express at a given moment, but also what
linguistic forms are appropriate to express them.
Слайд 32
Deciding on these under the severe time
pressure which
language use involves is
one of the main problems
which foreign
users of a language face and is an aspect
of communicative ability which has been
frequently overlooked in the classroom.
Слайд 33
When two speakers take part in an interaction, there
is
normally an aim of some kind in their
minds. In real
life, one person speaks to another because he wishes, e.g.
to invite him, to complain to him, to threaten him or to
reassure him and this aim will be in his mind all the
time he is speaking.
Слайд 34
What you say to somebody depends not
only on
what he has just said to you
(though this
is obviously very important)
but also on what you want to get out of
the conversation. The strategies and
tactics involved in using language in this
way are of fundamental importance in
communication, and again they are left
out of account in a method which fails to
give practice in using language for real
purposes.
Слайд 35
To learn it, do it
It is now widely accepted
that education must be ultimately
concerned not just with
teaching but with learning. One
consequence of this is that what happens in the classroom
must involve the learner and must be judged in terms of its
effects on him. Another, equally important consequence is
that learning becomes to a large extent the learner’s
responsibility. The teacher can help, advise and teach; but
only the learner can learn. Both of these ideas have direct
implications for a communicative method of language
teaching.
A cardinal tenet of learning theory is that you learn to do by
doing. Only by practising communicative activities can we
learn to communicate.
Слайд 36
There is no reason why a communicative
method should
not encompass stages of
presentation, practice and production, the
ideas behind which are perhaps more
familiar in a grammatical context. What is
presented, practised and produced will be
quite different, as will the ways in which it is
done, but the principle of organisation seems
as relevant and valid here as it was before.
Слайд 37
One of the most frequently voiced criticisms of a
communicative approach to language teaching is
that it encourages
students to make mistakes,
particularly of grammar. There are probably two
factors which may account for this and they
should be viewed rather differently.Mistakes are not always a mistake
Слайд 38
Trying to express something you are not quite
sure
how to say is a vital feature of using
a
foreign language, for few learners ever reach
the stage of total fluency and accuracy in
every situation , and it is often necessary to
‘make do’ with whatever resources one can
muster.
Niggling criticism of what he produces will
ultimately destroy the learner’s confidence in
his ability to use the language.
Слайд 39
A learner who makes mistakes
because he is trying
to do
something he has not been told
or
shown how to do, or which he
has not yet mastered, is not
really making a mistake at all.
Слайд 40
The role of a teacher
Communicative approach involves the teacher
in
redefining, to some extent, his traditional pedagogical
role.
The development of a communicative ability is a
process which occurs inside a learner. The role of a
teacher is to provide the necessary experience and
stimuli. The teacher is a “facilitator of learning” and
may need to perform in a variety of specific roles
Слайд 41
The teacher has two main roles: the first role
is to
facilitate the communication process between all
participants
in the classroom, and between these
participants and the various activities and texts.
The second role is to act as an independent participant
within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is
closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises
from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the
teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource
himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures
and activities….
A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner,
with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge
and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature of
learning and organizational capacities.
Слайд 42
Psychological factors in the classroom
It is frequent for a
foreign language classroom to
create inhibition and anxiety. It
is not uncommon
to find a teaching situation where:
—
the learners remain constantly aware of their own state of
ignorance before a teacher who possesses all relevant
knowledge
—
They are expected to speak or act only in response to
immediate stimuli or instructions from the teacher
—
— whatever is said or done is scrutinised in detail with every
shortcoming being made a focus for comment
Слайд 43
Negative consequences of inhibition and
anxiety in a classroom
The
learners occupy a permanent position of
inferiority before a
critical audience with little
opportunity for asserting their individuality
Many learners will prefer to keep a “low profile” in
the hope that they will not be called upon to
participate openly.
Слайд 44
The atmosphere in a classroom depends on the
existence
of interpersonal relationships which do
not create inhibitions but
are supportive and
accepting
—
the teacher’s role in the learning process is recognised as less
dominant. More emphasis is placed on the learner’s contribution
through independent learning
—
The emphasis on communicative interaction provides more
opportunities for cooperative relationships both among learners
and between teacher and learners
—
The teacher’s role as communicator places him on an equal basis
with the learners. This help to break down tension and barriers
between them
—
Learners are not being constantly corrected. Errors are regarded
with greater tolerance, as a natural phenomenon in the
development of communicative skills
Слайд 45
TASK-BASED MATERIALS
A variety of games, role plays, simulations,
and task-based
communi cation activities have been prepared to
support
Communicative Lan guage Teaching classes. These typically
are in the form of one-of-a-kind items: exercise handbooks,
cue cards, activity cards, pair-communication practice
materials, and student-interaction practice booklets. In pair-
communication materials, there are typically two sets of
material for a pair of students, each set containing different
kinds of information. Sometimes the information is
complementary, and partners must fit their respective parts
of the «jigsaw» into a composite whole. Others assume
different role relationships for the partners (e.g., an
interviewer and an interviewee). Still others provide drills
and practice material in inter actional formats.
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